World History, Grade 6, Student Sources Supplement VII The Muslim Empires

World History, Grade 6, Student Sources Supplement VII The Muslim Empires

Source #2

            “the incidence of taxation fell more heavily on a Muslim than a non-Muslim (Le Bon).”

            On the other hand, many scholars argue that the jizya fell more heavily on non-Muslims and is oppressive. Jizya or jizyah (Arabic: جزية‎ ǧizya; Ottoman Turkish: جزيه‎ cizye) is a per capita yearly tax historically levied on non-Muslim subjects.

Jizya is based on Qur’an 9:29 and Muhammad’s instructions in Sahih Muslim 4294 to subjugate non-Muslims and accept Islam; and if they refuse that, to invite them to enter the Islamic social order by paying the jizya, the non-Muslim poll tax, and accepting subservient status; and if they refuse both, to go to war with them. The triple choice of conversion, subjugation, or war is founded on Muhammad’s words.

The Qur’an states: “Fight those who believe not in Allāh, nor the Last Day, nor hold that forbidden which has been forbidden by Allāh and His Messenger, nor acknowledge the Religion of Truth—from those who have been given the Book—until they pay the jizyah by hand and are subdued” (9:29 ). CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)

            The practice began with the Quran and the hadiths that mention jizya (cf. Sabet, Amr [2006], The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 24:4, Oxford; pp. 99–100). In fact, taxes levied on non-Muslim subjects were among the main sources of revenues collected by some Islamic polities, such as the Ottoman Empire (cf. Oded Peri; Gilbar [Ed], Gad [1990]. Ottoman Palestine, 1800-1914: Studies in economic and social history. Leiden: E.J. Brill. p. 287).

Conversion to Islam was a secondary concern since the dhimma were taxed to support the Ottoman state. Non-Muslims are dhimmis, that is, a dhimmī (Arabic: ذمي‎ ḏimmī, is a historical term referring to a protected person. Rights are granted by the Ottoman state. Non-Muslims were taxed and thereafter either conscripted or enslaved as well. Beginning with Murad I in the 14th century and extending through the 17th century, the Ottoman Empire employed devşirme (دوشيرم), a kind of tribute or conscription system where young Christian boys were taken from communities in the Balkans, enslaved and converted to Islam and later employed either in the Janissary military corps or the Ottoman administrative system.

 

Historically, the jizya tax has been understood in Islam as a fee for protection provided by the Muslim ruler to non-Muslims, for the exemption from military service for non-Muslims, for the permission to practice a non-Muslim faith with some communal autonomy in a Muslim state, and as material proof of the non-Muslims' submission to the Muslim state and its laws. Jizya has also been understood as a ritual humiliation of the non-Muslims in a Muslim state for not converting to Islam. “Akbar (#Source 8) abolished the Muslim right to enslave prisoners captured in war, repealed a tax levied on Hindu pilgrims and abolished the jizyah or poll tax on non-Muslims” (Mughal Empire, The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World, 2009).

Bat Ye’or, author of the history of religious minorities in the Muslim world and modern European politics, noted in Mark Durie’s The Third Choice (cf. The Third Choice- Islam, Dhimmitude and Freedom
Deror Books, 2010):

“The strict scholarly rationalism of the author is particularly evident in the chapter on the theological significance of jizya, the head tax paid by non-Muslims under Islamic rule. Here Durie brings numerous and irrefutable sources illustrating the meaning, implications and religious justification of the jizya, which is the cost paid by non-Muslims for the right to live, albeit in humiliation. The jizya ritual, writes Durie, forces the dhimmi subject – through his participation in it – ‘to forfeit his very head if he violates any of the terms of the dhimma covenant, which has spared his life’. The author sheds new light on the jizya ritual, which he calls an ‘enactment of one’s own decapitation’. His discussion of this virtual beheading brings new depth to the Muslim-non-Muslim relationship.”

            Durie conveys the ritualized brutality of jizya –a virtual beheading:

            “For the dhimmi, the annual jizya payment was a powerful and public symbolic expression of the jihad-dhimmitude nexus, which fixed the horizon of the dhimmi’s world. Although the ritual varied in its specific features, its essential character was an enactment of a beheading, in which one of the recurrent features was a blow to the neck of the dhimmi, at the very point when he makes his payment (p. 131).”

            Durie goes on to note the devastating impact of the jizya on dhimmis:

            “The intended result of the jizya ritual is for the dhimmi to lose all sense of his own personhood. In return for this loss, the dhimmi was supposed to feel humility and gratitude towards his Muslim masters. Al-Mawardi said that the jizya head tax was either a sign of contempt, because of the dhimmis’ unbelief, or a sign of the mildness of Muslims, who granted them quarter (instead of killing or enslaving them) so humble gratitude was the intended response.

            The remarks of al-Mawardi and Ibn ‘Ajibah make clear that its true meaning is to be found in psychological attitudes of inferiority and indebtedness imposed upon non-Muslims living under Islam, as they willingly and gratefully handed over the jizya in service to the Muslim community (p. 141).”

            He notes this from the Koranic commentary of Ibn Kathir:

            “Allah said,

‘until they pay the Jizyah’, if they do not choose to embrace Islam, ‘with willing submission’, in defeat and subservience, ‘and feel themselves subdued.’ disgraced, humiliated and belittled.”

Therefore, Muslims are not allowed to honor the people of Dhimmah or elevate them above Muslims, for they are miserable, disgraced and humiliated (p. 142).

In light of this information perhaps re-consider an answer for #7, History Test #6—The Muslim Empires: “Explain three reasons why the Ottoman sultans were able to successfully rule such a large area of diverse societies for so long.”

·         Religious tolerance

Also, religious intolerance is compatible with Question #6 about benevolent rule. The sultans would maintain that they are benevolent rulers but they are ruling through humiliating taxation and state hegemony. Who or what do the dhimmis need protection from but the sultans and the Muslim majority population who use the power of the state to dispossess them.

In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries the Ottoman Empire was the so-called “sick man of Europe.” A second #7 question asks: “Explain in broad terms the economic factors that lead to the fall of empires.”

Potential answers include:

Ø  “revenue stream ends-higher taxes/debasement of currency”

In 1856, the Ottoman Empire lost a revenue stream once the jizyah was abolished which

weakened the regime.

 

Citizens in the Graeco-Roman World: Aspects of Citizenship from the Archaic Period to AD 212

Citizens in the Graeco-Roman World: Aspects of Citizenship from the Archaic Period to AD 212

Congressional Reform in the 1970s – Part 2

Congressional Reform in the 1970s – Part 2

Overview

In the 1970s, Congress acted on a variety of fronts to strengthen itself and to restrain the presidency and regulatory bureaucracies. These actions helped to undermine belief in the capacity of the president to govern effectively.

Hillsdale Dialogue: Churchill and World War I

churchill-and-world-war-i

Aristotle: Friendship of the Good

aristotles-timeless-advice-on-what-real-friendship-is-and-why-it-matters

Roman Virtual Reality Experience Restores 7,000 Buildings

vr-experience-restores-7000-roman-buildings-monuments-their-former-glory

Grade 7 Unit 6: Days 48-54 Concept: The American Revolution The Battle of Monmouth

The Battle of Monmouth

 

Objectives:

 

·         SWBAT identify the factors that eventually led to victory for the colonists in the American Revolution.

·         SWBAT demonstrate mastery of concepts through answering questions verbally, whiteboard practice, and/or games.

 

Sources/Handouts that will be used for discussion/evaluation for this lesson:

 

·         Source #1 Monmouth Morning

·         Source #2 Monmouth Afternoon

·         Source #3 Washington Rallying the Troops at Monmouth; in 1857, Emanuel Leutze painted this for the Monmouth County Historical Association.

·         Source #4 Christopher Geist, “Of Rocks, Trees, Rifles, and Militia: Thoughts on Eighteenth-Century Military Tactics,” http://www.history.org/foundation/journal/winter08/tactics.cfm

·         Source #5 Matrix

·         Source #6 Pennsylvania Rifle – British Infantry Musket

 

Review—Key Question (s):

 

·         What did Washington hope to accomplish by bringing von Steuben to Valley Forge?

 

Suggested Key Discussion Points/Questions:

 

·         Had Washington been an effective military commander and motivator of his troops? How had he become so popular?

 

The Battle of Monmouth

After Valley Forge and Frederick von Steuben’s training the Battle of Monmouth proved to be a test of their ability to employ European battlefield tactics. The Battle of Monmouth was an American Revolutionary War battle fought on June 28, 1778, in Monmouth County, New Jersey. The Continental Army under General George Washington attacked the rear of the British Army column commanded by Lieutenant General Sir Henry Clinton as they left Monmouth Court House.

Summary of the morning

Unsteady handling of lead Continental elements by Major General Charles Lee had allowed British rearguard commander Lieutenant General Charles Cornwallis to seize the initiative, but Washington's timely arrival on the battlefield rallied the Americans along a hilltop hedgerow.

Source #1 Monmouth Morning

 

Summary of the afternoon

Sensing the opportunity to smash the Continentals, Cornwallis pressed his attack and captured the hedgerow in stifling heat. Washington consolidated his troops in a new line on heights behind marshy ground, used his artillery to fix the British in their positions, and then brought up a four-gun battery under Major General Nathanael Greene on nearby Combs Hill to enfilade the British line, requiring Cornwallis to withdraw.

 

Source #2 Monmouth Afternoon

 

Washington, advancing with the main force along the Monmouth road and not having been informed of the retreat of Lee's men, encountered Lee's fleeing troops and finally Lee himself, with the British in hot pursuit. After a heated exchange with Lee, Washington relieved him of command and sent him to the rear. He then galloped to rally Lee's troops. His white horse died from heat exhaustion, and so he picked up a chestnut mare. He stopped the retreating soldiers, commanding them, "Stand fast, my boys, and receive your enemy. The Southern troops are advancing to support you." The men rallied and delayed the British pursuit until the main force could take up positions further to the west.

Source #3 Washington Rallying the Troops at Monmouth; in 1857, Emanuel Leutze painted this for the Monmouth County Historical Association.

 

 

The remnants of Lee's forces then withdrew to the main American force, where the Continental Army troops were positioned behind the West Ravine on the Monmouth Courthouse - Freehold Meeting House Road; Lee, in spite of the chastisement he had been dealt by Washington, remained at the bridge until he had ushered the last of the soldiers across the Ravine. Washington drew up his army with Greene's division on the right, Major General Stirling’s division on the left, and most of Lee's former force, now under Lafayette, in reserve. In front of his lines, Wayne commanded various elements of Lee's force. Artillery was placed on both wings, with the right wing in position to enfilade the advancing British.

The British came on and attacked Stirling's left wing with their light infantry and the 42nd (Black Watch) Regiment in the van. They were met by a storm of fire from Stirling’s Continentals. The battle raged back and forth for an hour until three American regiments were sent though woods to enfilade the attacking British right flank. The attack was successful and sent the British back to reform.

Foiled on the left, Cornwallis personally led a heavy attack against Greene's right wing, with a force comprising British and Hessian grenadiers, light infantry, the Coldstream Guards and another Guards battalion, and the 37th and 44th Regiments. The attack was met by enfilading fire from Thomas-Antoine de Mauduit du Plessis’s four 6-pound cannons on Combs Hill, as well as accurate volleys from Greene's Continental regiments. The British persisted up the ravine slope but within minutes five high-ranking officers and many men were down from heavy fire. The attackers recoiled down the slope.

During Cornwallis' abortive attack on Greene, another British force made up of grenadiers, light infantry and light dragoons hit Wayne's forward force, who were protected behind a long hedge. Three times the British were driven back by Wayne's grapeshot and bullets: but an overwhelming fourth attack overlapped Wayne's position and forced his units to fall back to the main American line.

The British made no further attempts on the main American line, although cannonading from both sides continued until 6 p.m. At this point, the British fell back to a strong position east of the Ravine. Washington wanted to take the offensive to the British and attack both flanks, but darkness brought an end to the battle.

The British rested and then resumed their march to the northeast during the night. Washington wanted to press the battle the next day but in the morning found that the British had withdrawn during the night, continuing their march without incident to Sandy Hook and arriving there on June 30. Clinton's rearguard successfully covered the withdrawal. The British force was then transported by the Royal Navy across Lower New York Bay to Manhattan.

The British official casualty return reported 65 killed, 59 dead of "fatigue", 170 wounded and 64 missing. The American official return stated 69 killed, 161 wounded and 132 missing (37 of whom were found to have died of heat-stroke). Other estimates increase the losses to 1,134 British and 500 American casualties.

The battle effectively ended in a draw, as the Americans held the field, but the British were able to get the army and supplies safely to New York.

Source #4 Christopher Geist, “Of Rocks, Trees, Rifles, and Militia: Thoughts on Eighteenth-Century Military Tactics.”

 

Why did Revolutionary Era armies face one another at less than a hundred yards in tight formations, three ranks deep, firing volley after volley? As they shot, they moved closer together, often closing the fight with a bayonet charge as one force drove the other from the field. Clumped, the soldiers seemingly offered their foes a classic “sitting duck” target. But this was true of both sides. Why then did eighteenth-century armies adopt such tactics?

American officers with prior military experience had learned the art of warfare under British commanders in the French and Indian War and other North American actions. Certainly, this was true of George Washington and many of his staff. . . .  

Why then did eighteenth-century armies adopt “sitting duck” tactics?

The answer is in the arms the armies used. The smoothbore military musket—the English version came to be known as the Brown Bess—is often maligned for inaccuracy, though the weapon was true enough at short range, say less than eighty yards. Yet accuracy was not at all the issue. Rate of fire, with companies firing in volley, gave muskets their military advantage. A well-drilled company could load and fire in unison at least four times a minute, and some seasoned units probably did better. No soldier aimed his weapon at any single adversary. He “presented” his weapon straight ahead, or obliquely to the right or left, at the command of his officers, and fired in unison with his company as rapidly as possible.

As a modern historian has written,

“Speed was everything. Speed for the defending force to pour as many bullets into the attacking force as possible; speed for the attacking force to close with its adversary before it had been too severely decimated to have sufficient strength to carry the position. . . .”

Linear positioning and rapid volleys explain the significance of the contributions to the American cause of Baron Friedrich von Steuben. Joining Washington’s regulars in their winter encampment at Valley Forge in February 1778, the German baron somewhat simplified the British manual of arms and used the new manual to drill the Continental force relentlessly and effectively in rapid loading and firing of the musket. He improved their battlefield maneuverability, too. Historian Douglas Southall Freeman called von Steuben the “first teacher” of the American army.

Rapidity of fire—sending constant, coordinated volleys in the direction of the enemy—was infinitely more important than the accuracy of any individual’s musket. Such firepower was hard to achieve unless the men were arrayed in open terrain and organized by company. So much for rocks and trees.

Source #5 Matrix

 

What about those rifles? These formidable firearms had been in use for about a hundred years before the Revolution, and they were plentiful in the southern and middle colonies, though relatively rare in New England. True enough, they were more accurate and effective at greater distances, several hundred yards, than were military muskets. But accuracy came at a price: rifles took too long to load. A minute or more was needed to tightly “patch” the ball and carefully ram it down the barrel to engage the rifled grooves that spun the ball and gave it true trajectory.

Moreover, unlike the riflemen, musketmen did not carry the powder horns used in the time-consuming measurement of powder for each charge. A musket’s charge, along with the ball, was measured and encased in a paper cartridge. The wrapper served as the ball’s wadding when it was quickly, though loosely, thrown down the barrel and pushed home with the rammer. The comparative sluggishness of reloading a rifle rendered it unsatisfactory for linear military tactics. Interpreter Dale Smoot says during his Magazine presentations, “Rifles are fine weapons for shooting at things that don’t shoot back—like deer.”

There was another problem with rifles and, indeed, all civilian long arms of the period. They were not fashioned to accommodate bayonets, an essential weapon of eighteenth-century infantry. Regular forces moved into lines of battle with bayonets fixed. Military bayonets were offset from the muzzle to permit loading and firing with the bayonets in place, always ready for a charge to force the enemy from the field. Civilian weapons might be equipped with plug bayonets, essentially knives with wooden plugs to be inserted into the barrel of the firearm, rendering it incapable of firing.

Source #6 Pennsylvania Rifle – British Infantry Musket

 

Follow-up/Assessment Questions:

·         Did the Battle of Monmouth demonstrate that the Continentals could stand in European battle formation and oppose the British face-to-face? (Various: the Revolution was fought in a variety of environments and conditions. Massed forces, British and patriot, in linear formations fought the battles of Long Island, Brandywine, Monmouth, Hobkirk’s Hill, White Plains, Germantown, Camden, and Cowpens, among others. Sometimes, as these engagements evolved, one side or the other retreated in disarray, and some soldiers sought protection behind fences or trees or other defensive barriers. But the battle plans developed by the generals relied on linear tactics in the European fashion that dominated eighteenth-century warfare. Most battles intentionally initiated by either side in the Revolution were planned and contested with traditional European linear tactics. Little would change until the invention of the rifled musket and the Minnie ball shortly before the American Civil War).

·         Had the Continentals met the British in open field and forced them to retreat? (The British disengaged and did not face Washington the next day).

·         Monmouth was the last major battle in the northern theater and the largest one-day battle of the war when measured in terms of participants. How significant is the Battle for the war effort? For the field leadership of Washington? (It was a test of von Steuben’s drilling and tactics. Washington relieved Lee of command and took charge on the battlefield.).

·         What do you think should happen to Lee? (Lee was later court-martialed).

·         Finally, the legend of “Molly Pitcher” is usually associated with this battle. It is believed that she was Mary Ludwig Hays. According to one story, she was the wife of an American artilleryman who lived near the battlefield, bringing water for swabbing the cannons and for the thirsty crews, and took her husband's place after he fell, and helped him with his wounds. The artillery men gave her the nickname "Molly Pitcher" when she was bringing them water from a nearby spring. The story is based on a true incident but has become embellished over the years.

 

 

Grade 7 Unit 6: Days 48-54 Concept: The American Revolution Civic Virtue-George Washington as the American Cincinnatus

Civic Virtue-George Washington as the American Cincinnatus

 

Objectives:

·         SWBAT define the term "civic virtue"

·         Students will be compare the civic virtue of Cincinnatus, a farmer and military leader during the Roman Republic and George Washington, a general in the Continental army, and first leader of the American Republic.

·         Students will nominate and give a rationale for a contemporary "American Cincinnatus."

 

Sources/Handouts that will be used for discussion/evaluation for this lesson:

·         Excerpts from George Washington's Resignation Address to the Continental Congress

[Annapolis, Md. 23 December 1783]

Review—Key Question (s):

·         Remind students that individuals in the Roman Republic prospered because of limited government and by being adaptable, obstinate, patriotic, and valorous (cf. February at a Glance Monthly Curriculum Guide Grade 3).

·         Why does a Republic require civic virtue to be successful?

 

 

"Calling of Cincinnatus from the Plow," Constantino Brumidi, U.S. Capitol Rotunda

 

Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus was called upon by a delegation from the Roman senate in 458 BC. He was plowing his small farm of three acres alongside the Tiber River and he was informed that the Senate called upon him to be dictator so that he could rid Rome of the threat of certain tribes to the east, the Aequians.

Cincinnatus turned to his wife Racilia and said, `We may not have enough food to live on this winter because we won't be able to sow our fields.' Despite the personal cost he performed his duty. He wore the regalia of a dictator but as a patriot he loyally assumed the responsibilities and duties that the Roman senate had placed upon him. Within 16 days he had accomplished the mission. He turned his back on power. The civic virtue of Cincinnatus suggested the Roman model of one who did not seek power, did not want power, and willingly gave up power.

The Founders believed that civic virtue was important to make a Republic function properly. Civic virtue means that people should put the common welfare above their own interests. By returning to his home, Cincinnatus showed that he valued being a citizen of Rome more than fame and personal power. He did not want to use his popularity to take power away from the duly elected representatives of the people.

 

“General George Washington Resigning His Commission,” John Trumbull, 1824, U.S. Capitol Rotunda

George Washington, similar to Cincinnatus was a farmer although he of course was a gentleman farmer. Washington gave up power by resigning his war commission and thereafter by not clinging to the power and trappings of a monarch.

Excerpts from George Washington's Resignation Address to the Continental Congress

[Annapolis, Md. 23 December 1783]

“Mr. President
The great events on which my resignation depended having at length taken place; I have now the honor of offering my sincere Congratulations to Congress & of presenting myself before them to surrender into their hands the trust committed to me, and to claim the indulgence of retiring from the Service of my Country.

Happy in the confirmation of our Independence and Sovereignty, and pleased with the opportunity afforded the United States of becoming a respectable Nation, I resign with satisfaction the Appointment I accepted with diffidence—A diffidence in my abilities to accomplish so arduous a task, which however was superseded by a confidence in the rectitude of our Cause, the support of the Supreme Power of the Union, and the patronage of Heaven.

Having now finished the work assigned me, I retire from the great theatre of Action—and bidding an Affectionate farewell to this August body under whose orders I have so long acted, I here offer my Commission, and take my leave of all the employments of public life.”

Suggested Key Discussion Points/Questions:

·         Why did Washington say that he was resigning? (His duty was at an end; the nation was independent and sovereign).

·         What did he mean when he said that he accepted his appointment (to be the nation's first president) with "diffidence"? (He was reticent to accept since the task was so difficult).

·         How was he able to overcome that feeling? (The cause was just, the colonies were united, and Heaven favored the result).

·         What are the words of Washington's speech that would move his audience? (Various answers: great events, honor, congratulations, trust, removed himself from power, sovereign and independent nation, just cause, power of union, patronage of heaven, farewell, no public seizure or retention of power).

·         What quotes could have been made by Cincinnatus? (Various: but the key analogy is that neither of these individuals sought personal power or gain but voluntarily gave up power). 

·         What is the message that Washington leaves to the country as a whole? (Similar to Cincinnatus civic virtue requires that citizens do their duty but not unnecessarily retain public acclaim or power).

 

When asked to preside over the Constitutional Convention in 1789, he went reluctantly, since he did not want to leave his wife and treasured Mount Vernon property. When it was obvious in 1787 that he would be the first President he demurred taking power but out of patriotic duty he reluctantly took up the post for a first, and then a second term. At the time not codified in law Washington set the precedent that the Chief Executive would not serve more than two terms. His selfless actions were seen as showing respect for the embryonic American Republic. Washington’s altruism appealed to the new American citizenry.

Follow-up/Assessment Questions:

·         Who might be considered today's American Cincinnatus? (Various: but students may identify that there is a lack of civic virtue today, as opposed to the exemplary actions of Cincinnatus and Washington).

·         Which form of government, a democracy or a republic, more easily turns to tyranny? Why? (Students should identify weaknesses of democracy, power struggles, individuals who seize and retain power, majorities who persecute minorities, demagoguery: Republics have constitutional limits in place, checks and balances, and individuals who exercise civic virtue).  

·         In the future, who may demonstrate civic virtue? (Various: but students may decide that they themselves could demonstrate civic virtue by their individual choices just like Cincinnatus and Washington).

Lecture 7: Congressional Reform in the 1970s – Part 1

Congressional Reform in the 1970s – Part 1

Why Bob Dylan Matters: Classics and Bob

Dylan

Classics & Color, Again, and Again, and Again

classics-makes-me-happy-is-that-enough-

Classical Greek Tactics: A Cultural History

Greek Warfare

Congress Lecture 6 Progressive Era Congressional Reform

Congress/lecture-06/congress---lecture-6

Roman Economy

Roman Economy

Challenger: Texas Students Will Soon Learn Slavery Played a Centrol Role in the Civil War

/texas-students-will-soon-learn-slavery-played-a-central-role-in-the-civil-war

Black Athena, White Power, Again, and Again, and Again

black-athena-white-power

Congress Lecture 5 Legislation and Regulation

Congress/lecture-05

Congress Lecture 4 The Non-Delegation Doctrine

Congress/lecture-04

Congress Lecture 3 Politics and Administration

congress/lecture-03

Congress Lecture 2 Law, Reason, and Deliberation

congress/lecture-02

Hillsdale College: Congress How it Worked and Why it Doesn't, Lecture 1

congress/lecture-1

Scale, space and canon in ancient literary culture

Cambridge University Press 

Greek art and aesthetics in the fourth century B.C.

Princeton University Press 

La nascita del titolo nella letteratura greca: Dall'epica arcaica alla prosa di età classica

Dall'epica arcaica alla prosa di età classica 

The conquered: Byzantium and America on the cusp of modernity

Extravagantes 

Nietzsche's Three Steps to a Meaningful Life

lessons-from-history/nietzsches-three-steps-to-a-meaningful-life

Future Medicine

.com/forward/videos

How to Create Social Media Policy

how-create-social-media-policy-employees

HUM 111 How Could the Romans Have Won at Cannae?

How-could-the-Romans-have-won-the-battle-of-Cannae

Propagandize Middle Schoolers in History

to-chart-a-course-helping-middle-schoolers-broaden-their-vision-of-history

What Got You Here Won't Get You There

twhat-got-you-here-wont-get-

Pontiac GTO

/your-definitive-pontiac-gto-buyers-guide

HIS 205 Left or Liberal?

/left-or-liberal

HIS 205 LBJ’s Democratic Plantation

/lbjs-democratic-plantation