- Asani, Ali S., Abdel-Malek, Kamal, and Schimmel, Annemarie. Celebrating Muḥammad : Images of the Prophet in Popular Muslim Poetry. Columbia, S.C.: U of South Carolina, 1995.
- Brown, Jonathan. Hadith : Muhammad's Legacy in the Medieval and Modern World. Oxford: Oneworld, 2009. Sections found here.
- Schimmel, Annemarie. And Muhammad Is His Messenger : The Veneration of the Prophet in Islamic Piety. Chapel Hill: U of North Carolina, 1985.
- Lings, Martin., and Islamic Texts Society. Muhammad : His Life Based on the Earliest Sources. Rev. ed. London: Islamic Texts Society, 1991
- Daftary, Farhad. “Diversity in Islam: Communities of Interpretation”, in The Muslim Almanac (Gale Research Inc, Detroit, MI: 1996), pp.161-173, ed. A. Nanji.
- Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. “Sunnism and Shiism", in Ideals and Realities of Islam. New York: Praeger, 1967, pp. 147-178.
- "The Prophet Muhammad Was Once Glorified In Art", radio segment from WBUR's Here & Now, a National Public Radio production, 16 Jan 2015.
The Qur’an: God’s Names and the Prophet Muhammad
Prepared By: Khalil Andani (Harvard University)In the below diagram with accompanying explanation, you are able to see the overlapping names and attributes given to God and the Prophet within the Quran. Given this overlap, one can see why the Prophet Muhammad possessed interpretative authority of the Quran, and why his actions and teachings recorded in the ḥadīth literature became formative of Islamic practice, whether that be Islamic law or Islamic mysticism, or anything in between. The names shared in common between the Prophet and God may also explain the many and various forms of Prophetic devotion found throughout varying geographical and historical contexts.
- God is al-Raḥmān (The Merciful) and Prophet Muḥammad is raḥmah (mercy) (21:107)
- God is al-Raḥīm (The Beneficent) and Prophet Muḥammad is raḥīm (9:128)
- God is al-Ra’ūf (The Kind) and Prophet Muḥammad is ra’ūf (9:128)
- God is al-Karim (The Generous) and Prophet Muḥammad is karīm (69:40; 81:19-21)
- God is al-Nūr (The Light) and Prophet Muḥammad is nūr from God (5:15) and radiant lamp (sirāj munīr) (33:46)
- God is al-Ḥalīm (The Forbearing) and Prophet Muḥammad is halīm (11:75)
- God is al-Qawiy (The Strong) and Prophet Muḥammad is dhū al-quwwah (possessor of power) (81:20-21)
- God is al-‘Ālim (the Knower) and Prophet Muḥammad is the teacher (mu‘allim) of knowledge (62:2; 3:164; 2:151)
- God is al-Ṣabūr (The Patient) and Prophets are ṣabūr (patient) (38:16, 46:34)
- God is al-Shahīd (The Witness) and Prophet is shahīd (witness) of humankind (2:143, 33:46; 4:41)
- God is al-Walī (The Guardian) and Prophet Muḥammad is the walī of the Believers (5:55)
- God is al-Ghaffar (The Forgiver) and Prophet Muḥammad intercedes for people’s forgiveness (4:64, 63:5, 60:12)
- God is al-‘Afū (The Pardoner) and Prophet Muḥammad pardons the Believers (5:13; 3:159; 7:199)
- God is al-Hādī (The Guide) and Prophet Muḥammad guides to the Straight Path (45:25)
- God is al-‘Aẓīm (The Great) and Prophet Muḥammad’s character is ‘aẓīm (68:4)
- God is al-Ḥakam (The Judge) and Prophet Muḥammad is the judge of the Believers (4:65; 4:105; 24:51; 33:36)
- God is al-Mubayyin (The Clarifier) (5:75, 24:58) and Prophet Muḥammad makes things clear (5:15; 5:19; 16:44)
- God is al-Mutahhir (The Purifier) (4:49; 33:33) and Prophet Muḥammad purifies the believers (9:103)
- God is al-Mawlā (The Master) and Prophet Muḥammad holds awlā (authority) over the Believers (33:6)
- God is al-Muḥyī (The Giver of Life) and Prophet Muḥammad summons the believers to life (8:24).
- God recites His Signs (2:252; 3:108) and the Prophet Muḥammad recites His Signs (2:151).
- God sends Ṣalawāt (blessings) and Prophet Muḥammad sends ṣalawāt (blessings) (9:103)
- God receives ṣadaqah (9:104) when Prophet Muḥammad receives ṣadaqah (9:103; 58:12)
- God brings people from darkness to Light (2:257) and Prophet Muḥammad brings people to Light (14:1; 14:5 65:11) He who gives their allegiance (bay‘ah) to Prophet Muḥammad has given their allegiance to God (48:10)
- God commands right & forbids wrong (66:6) and Prophet Muḥammad commands lawful & forbids wrong (7:157) He who obeys the Prophet Muḥammad, obeys God (4:80; 4:64)
- When Prophet Muḥammad threw stones, it was actually God who threw (8:17)